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a) The Magma (Introduction)

name means magma matter in semi-fluid state -result of the merger of silicates and other compounds that make up the rocks, which show properties that do not correspond with the solid state and also with those of a liquid or fluid, according to general principles of physics. The magma
appear in different types of suspension crystals and fragments partially melted rocks and carbonates, sulfides and other components dissolved volatile.
The interaction of different physical conditions determine the characteristics of magma, both in terms of their chemical composition and its viscosity, strength, plasticity and movement.

magmas types
A first classification of different types of magmas refers to its silica content. magmas with more than 60% silica dioxide are called acids, while those with less that amount are called basic .

When magma is reaching out for the weakest points of the earth's crust, magma bodies give rise to volcanoes and formed by cooling magmatic rocks, also called igneous or eruptive, whose degree of crystallization is variable, and among them are granite, basalt or porphyry.
The ascent of magma depends on its physical-chemical conditions (Viscosity, density, content of volatile elements, etc.) Of the particular tectonic region where rocks and have to cross. The

acid magmas are light and viscous, rise with ease and create large reservoirs. The basic magmas
, higher density, less viscous and ascend more difficult than previous ones.

When mixtures of various substances, the magmas do not have a melting point defined, but a melting range. Similarly, no one can speak of crystallization temperature, but crystallization interval.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MAGMA

The physical properties of magmas vary with temperature, pressure, chemical composition and other parameters such as crystallinity and gallbladder. The two most important properties of magmas are the density and viscosity. Density

Small compositional differences can produce substantial changes in density. The molten basalt, andesite and rhyolite in liquidus temperatures have densities gm/cm3 2.7,2.5 and 2.3, respectively. Density changes associated with cooling are smaller than density changes caused by differentiation from a basaltic liquid with a rhyolite.
a melt density decreases during cooling due to crystallization of the melt separating elements more volatile densos.los have a significant effect on the density, such as water coming down the density of the fluid.

Viscosity
A silica-rich melt, such as rhyolite, is composed of long chains and rings of silica tetrahedra. Consequently, rhyolitic melts have very high viscosity, while the basalt have much lower viscosities. The viscosity also depends strongly on the temperature.
The effect of pressure es todavía desconocido, pero algunos datos experimentales indican un descenso de la viscosidad con el incremento de la presión.

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b) Magmatic Differentiation

Cristalización magmática
      El magma se origina cuando en un lugar de la corteza o del manto superior la temperatura alcanza un punto en el que los minerales con menor punto de fusión empiezan a fundirse (inicio de fusión parcial de las rocas).
      Sin embargo, la temperatura de fusión no depende sólo del tipo de roca, sino también other factors such as the pressure he is or the presence or absence of water.
The increased pressure able to absence of water makes the merger , therefore, with depth, tends to increase the melting temperature of the rocks. By contrast, the presence of water decreases the melting point .

After its formation, the magma rises, it is less dense than the surrounding rocks. During ascent cools and begins to crystallize , Forming minerals with the lowest ever temperature, according to an orderly sequence known as a series of crystallization of Bowen.

The series Bowen refers to two main lines of crystallization. One indicates the order in which they are silicates rich in iron and magnesium (called ferromagnesian). Discontinuous series called because the crystals formed will be replaced by others with different and more complex structure as the temperature drops.
The another series of crystallization is that of plagioclase . called be of continuing trained on because the minerals have the same structure and only changes the relative proportion of sodium and calcium. At the end of crystallization, while sodium plagioclase (albite) and the lenses are formed quartz and orthoclase. Magmatic differentiation


sometimes occurs as the crystallization of a magma when the density difference between minerals and liquid formed and the residual is high and if This viscosity is low, crystals newly formed can be isolated from the rest of the magma, which therefore will be progressively enriched in silica.
to continue the process will produce, from a single magma, a series of igneous rocks of different composition, fractional crystallization . This process is called magmatic differentiation, and may originally acidic rock formation from basic to intermediate magmas. Phases


The magmatic crystallization cooling of magma within the crust results in a series of successive phases of crystallization, lower and lower temperatures.
The first is called ortomagmática phase, which generally occurs from above 700 ° C (depending on the composition of other physical conditions .) It crystallizes most of the magma forming plutonic rocks.

pegmatitic phase takes place more or less between 700 and 550 º C . At these temperatures, the residual melt is very rich in volatiles , so you enter through cracks, which crystallizes causing yacimentos Philonian of pegmatites. The minerals are silicates are rich in silica (quartz, orthoclase, albite), hydroxyl group (micas) and elements such as boron (tourmaline), phosphorus (apatite), fluoride (fluorite), etc.
In the third phase, called neumatolítica , which takes place about the 550 and 375 ° C , crystallizing the residue is composed mainly of volatile , which penetrate the host rocks and veins leading to consist of minerals such as muscovite, quartz, topaz, oxides and metal sulfides, etc. . Similarly, acting on volatile minerals of igneous rocks sticking or transforming them.
The last stage, called hydrothermal , starts below 375 ° C results in streaks and veins of quartz and calcite, a mineral and metal transformation minerals already formed.

magmatism and plate tectonics
The origin of magma is often associated with the global dynamics of the crust and mantle, and that, in general, takes place at the edges of plates. The dorsal
, the magma is basically formed by decompression of the upper mantle materials, shallow, and leads to basic rocks (basalts and gabbros) . In
subduction zones, magma originates at a depth of 150 km from partial melting of oceanic crust and / or the mantle and crust located above. This process results in the formation of rocks mostly intermediate (andesites and granodiorites).
In areas of continental collision in relation to orogenic processes, there is partial melting of the crust, and there are essentially acidic rocks like granite. There are also
specific areas of intraplate magmatism, which is due to the existence of hot spots in the mantle.

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c) Magmas as composition

genres magmas on Earth are due to the existence of convective currents in the mantle and the relative movements of lithospheric plates.

magmatism in the ocean is dominated by the generation of basalt. Small amounts of felsic or silicic magmas formed in the ridges, are linked to long with the basalts by processes of differentiation. On the continents, the magmatism is much more complex and diverse.
to describe this type of magmatism may be considered three main categories within the continental volcanism:

• FLOOD BASALT

Certain volcanic provinces are characterized by the formation of a large number of lava flows, with large volumes of hundreds of cubic miles. The basalts are

toleíca composition suggesting an extensive partial melting in the mantle. Large amounts of melt can be interpreted as the consequence of decompression in the mantle.

• alkaline magmatism

There is a wide and bewildering variety of igneous alkaline silica-deficient, incluyenfo alkali basalts, basanites and nephelinite, can also be grouped carbonalitas and kimberlites. but these rock types do not lead to the same origin.

There is sufficient evidence to believe that parts of the continental lithospheric mantle are very aniguas and in some places have been invaded by volatile components, mainly water and carbon dioxide.

• MAGMATISM SILICEA

The most important category within the continental volcanism, as it involves the development of large volumes of intermediate and silicic magmas, which often predominate over basaltic products. In the plutonic environment rocs form as diorite, tonalite, and granite ganodiorita whereas in volcanic environments range formaanrocas andesite-dacite-rhyolite. There

Two main hypotheses on the origin of siliceous amgmas. First is the idea that, since the continental crust is made up of granitic materials, these magmas are the result of a simple remelting of the crust. Second, siliceous magmas are formed by differentiation of basaltic magmas generated in the mantle.

siliceous magmas have much higher viscosities than basaltic magmas. These viscosities as high have important implications for the mechanisms of segregation and ascent of magma. This implies that the siliceous magmas must rise as masses rather than through narrow cracks.

crystallization along the margins of the chamber is a possible mechanism for differentiation and zonation of siliceous magmas.

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d) Classification of lavas (per flow)

LAVAS FLOW TO YOUR
According to the morphology and internal structure of lava flows are divided into two groups: the cast aa and pahoehoe type, both names come from the native language of the island of Hawaii.
The pahoehoe and aa lavas can coexist in the same heat, where the movement of the lava has different ways due to differences in the speed and flow.

Lavas Pahoehoe

Pahoehoe Hawaiian name meaning "soft" (because it uses a type of surface where you can walk without difficulty) as this on cooling has a smooth crust.
is common in this type of lava formation of surface roughness, as the crust still plastic mass is carried by liquid flowing under the surface (lavas strings, gut wash, etc.).
Such lavas are mostly trying to wash basalts. This is at a high temperature, the gases escape slowly and gently stream solidifies.
As sauperficie lava crystallizes faster than the inside, preventing the passage of gases to the surface, so that holes are called hobs.
The lavas pahoehoe tienen una morfología diferente a la de las lavas aa, lo cual se debe a que se desplazan con menor velocidad que las lavas aa.

Lavas AA

      Las lavas AA provienen del hawaiano que significa "pedregosa con lava áspera", tienen un significado opuesto a pahoehoe, define las coladas de superficie áspera y rota, difícilmente transitable, que también se conocen con el nombre castellano de malpaís.
      Las aa lava types are formed at the top of loose blocks. The ridges are composed of blocks, bombs and scoria material cemented by the lava. This is the result of a violent expulsion of gases to be separated from the lava and pressure inside the still fluid lava has on the surface and solidified.

type Aa lavas are generally more viscous than pahoehoe type, although the pahoehoe lava may become

Aa

TRANSITION

pahoehoe lava A AA

During the cooling lava, there is a freeing, successive polymerization and crystallization, which results in a change in propiedadesreólogicas reflected in variations of parameters such as viscosity and threshold. Arguably
pahoehoe to aa step is performed only when certain flow parameters (flow and slope, mainly) make continuous casting move, although it has cooled to critic of viscosity grade. If this viscocidadcrítica is reached when the melt is backwater and is practically immobile, the surface will keep caracterícticas pahoehoe lava degassing and crystallization culminating in sleep.

pillow lavas (pillow lavas)

When the lava comes into contact with water forms a thin glass layer, yet plastic material enclosing the molten magma to continue to flow as identified on the front and the melt surface protuberances or pouches separate and roll down the coastal slope or the gentle slopes of submarine pyroclastic buildings.
These bags or pads, pillows, accumulate at the foot of the slope deposits with a typical arrangement, pillow lavas and pillow lavas "Each pillow has a convex top surface, while the base is pointed or keel-shaped to fit over the previously deposited paved with pillows.
If the rash is fast, the base of these deposits does not exhibit this character or consists of elongated pillows and crushed by the accumulated weight on them. Other pads are isolated and retained spherical shapes, to be covered by pyroclastic mass or products from the decomposition of the vitreous cortex. Cradle of pillows glass solidifies gradually inward in concentric layers, leaving a core that cools more slowly and is therefore more crystalline.
The last stage of solidification causes radial fractures appear typical retraction of the pillows.

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e) catastrophic volcanic eruptions

Mount Pelee is an active volcano in the northern French overseas department of Martinique in the Caribbean. It is a tall, conical volcano composed of highly viscous magma and volcanic ash deposits and lava. It has an altitude of 1,397 meters.

The eruption of May 8, 1902 Mount Pelee is sadly remembered as "the worst volcanic disaster of the twentieth century" completely destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre, killing more than 30,000 dead, almost all of asphyxiation.

is said that only three people survived, including a prisoner named Louis-Auguste Cyparis or Sylbaris Ludger. Imprisoned for taking part in a fight with fatal outcome, Cyparis / Sylbaris was held in a windowless cell, which only aired for one open opening in the opposite direction of the volcano. Four days after the tragedy, the prisoner's screams alerted relief. Had serious burns in the extremities and back.

He said the eruption took place at breakfast time and at one point made an intense heat and hot air mixed with fine ash. Undoubtedly saved his life because his clothes did not burn and did not breathe the superheated air. The prisoner, pardoned, eventually earning a living in the celebrated Barnum's circus where he presented as "the man who survived the Day of Judgement."

it be known, was the first black to achieve celebrity in the entertainment world during the era of segregation. In 1792 and 1851 eruptions occurred oldest of which has been reported.

La Montagne Pelee volcano has created a typology: the type pelean volcanoes where magmas form viscous reach needles (pins) in the amount of pressure of lava; to fracture these pythons sudden departure occurs outside of "burning clouds", which consist of large pyroclastic lava that wiped out all the surroundings of the volcano. In other cases they can cause huge explosions completely destroying the volcano.

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f) The volcanoes and health

Volcanoes can affect the health of the populations of two ways: directly as a result of the explosions, lava flows, ash, and other effects, and indirectly by causing tsunamis, population displacement and adverse effects on agriculture.
Two variables determine the characteristics of a volcanic eruption: the fluidity or viscosity of the lava, and the magnitude of the pressure of the gases. In short, the more viscous is the largest lava and gas pressure that builds up before the eruption, the greater the potential dangers. Volcanic activity ranges from quiet lava output, even violent explosions that throw bulky masses of rock at high altitudes in the atmosphere. This last activity can be classified into 6 categories:

1) lava flows
The extent, thickness and speed with which advances a lava flow varies with its volume, its fluidity and topography del terreno. La velocidad con que avanza la corriente varia de unos cuantos metros al día. hasta 40 km por hora o más en laderas muy inclinadas. Sin embargo, dado que la rapidez de avance es pequeña, las corrientes mencionadas conllevan poco riesgo para la vida. No obstante, dado que pueden dañar extensamente las propiedades, se han intentado diversos métodos para controlar la dirección del flujo y la velocidad, incluidos el empleo de explosivos detonados desde el aire, la erección de barreras de desviación y el enfriamiento del frente de lava, con chorros de agua.

2) domos
      La viscous lava may collect in the vent holes to form domes grow by internal expansion and its size varies by several meters in width and depth, can reach 2 000 m wide and 600 meters deep. The expansion of a dome breaks makes the solid outer shell or "shell" and the continued displacement of blocks, rolling, could present danger for the inhabitants of the surrounding area. In some cases, cooling of viscous magma that protrudes from the shell fractures of the dome as "thorns", which sometimes are 100 m in height, they are unstable and can cause avalanches.

3) tephra
The term denotes the material ejected during volcanic eruptions, varying in size from dust to boulders several meters thick. The older tephra tend to settle near the exit, while dust and ash injected at the top of the atmosphere can be carried thousands of miles away.
direct effects of tephra. Large stones fall can trigger a fire or injure people or animals. Once deposited the ashes, it is rarely hot enough to cause fires. However, her weight may make them collapse the roofs of houses.
ash eruptions that generate a continuous and long may force people to evacuate the danger zone, but few examples of these situations. Two other types of eruption of ash would be the lifting of the base and ash flow. The first is formed at the base of some columns is a volcanic ash cloud hanging ring that is sold very quickly, and erode the surface near the crater. In the inner zone may break off or uprooted trees and high buildings at greater distances is likely to have crushed objects because of the severe sandstorm. In some eruptions, much of the ash suspended in a cloud and moving closer to the ground, an effect known as "ash flow." Friction removes the dispensed gas within the cloud, which makes the particles are kept separate ash. The flow is driven by gravity, and follow the anfractuocidades ground, the ash flow often exceeds 200 km / hour.
Effects of ash on the respiratory tract and eyes. To assess the risks that have the rain of ash on the health of people are important five factors: the concentration of total suspended particles that travel through the air, the particle size, frequency and duration of exposure, additional factors such as preexisting diseases of the respiratory tract, and the presence of crystalline silica (SiO2) in the ashes. Humans can suffer
suffocation by volcanic ash. In Pompeii, buried by the eruption of Vesuvius, 79 AD, it was noted that some victims found in the excavations, covered their faces with their hands or clothes, perhaps smothered by the ashes. The
silicon crystals travel through the air and have size "breathable", ie less than 10mm in diameter and particles when they penetrate the alveoli can irritate lung airways and cause obstruction symptoms in them. If exposure is to a large enough concentration for a long time, could cause silicosis, a disabling lung fibrosis and sometimes fatal.

4) Avalanches of incandescent material (glowing avalanches or pyroclastic flows)
three are recognized avalanche types identified by the name of the volcanoes in which each is first observed, these are the effects (Sofrière, Merapi and Pelee). Although the mechanisms by which they form are different but their effects are similar: a turbulent mass of superheated gases in which no dust, hot ash and lava fragments that travel, even to 160 km / hour which destroys everything in its path. The avalanche of incandescent material that devastated the population of St. Pierre, Martinique, in 1902, killing the 28 000 inhabitants.

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5) lahars
This term applies to many types of volcanic mud flows and whose temperature ranges from very low to the boil. The gravity-driven mud can proceed even at 100 km per hour, travel considerable distances and still cover areas of several hundred square kilometers. The lahars are common and are the leading cause of death and destruction by volcanoes. They may arise from the expulsion of water from a lake in the crater, melting snow, by the movement of ash or water saturated land on the slopes of a volcano, and other forms of volcanic activity that interacts with water. Because they are able to travel with extraordinary rapidity can cause many deaths. For example, in Kelud, Java, in 1919 a lahar killed 5 000 people and lost hundreds of square miles of land.
On rare occasions, a lahar may contain sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid in sufficient concentrations to cause chemical burns to exposed skin is known of a case of this type resulted the explosion of a lake in the crater of Kawah Idjen in Java, in 1917.

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lahar

6)
volcanic gases gases expelled by volcanic action contain varying amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide dioxide and sulfur trioxide, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, methane and more complex hydrocarbons, and nitrogen, argon and other inert gases affect people in different ways. Carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide can cause asphyxiation, the first, to build "mass" in areas very low, and the second by the direct effect that causes the respiratory tract.

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g) Gas Popocatepetl volcano magmatic Background

GAS MONITORING

volcanoes are built and grow by the accumulation of materials around an emission source and shredded materials are known as pyroclastic or lava. The way out of these materials can be effusive when there are lava flows or by explosions of varying intensity that break the rocks of volcanic conduits or magma (molten rock at depth and at the exit the surface is called lava.)

volcanic explosions resulting from the sudden increase in volume of gases which are separated from the magmas as they rise through the ducts of a system volcanic. Explosive volcanic eruptions are governed mainly by the gases dissolved in the magma and how these gases are separated from the magma (exsolution) and released from the chamber or reservoir magmático.Existe a wide variety of volcanic gases contained in magmas. Among the most abundant are water vapor (H2O) carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2).

The presence of volcanic gases and their concentration is very important to be measured from before an eruption starts with either direct methods such as those applied by Dr. Yuri Taran Sobol or indirect methods such as those used by Dr. Hugo Delgado Granados, both from the Department of Volcanology Institute of Geophysics, UNAM

Importance of measuring volcanic gases

The size and style of a volcanic eruption depends on the amount of gases containing the magma, its temperature is, its viscosity and crystal content before the eruption.
The exsolution is the result of physical changes in the volcanic system and magma convection within the chamber (movement of magma due to differences in temperature and density), crystallization of the (the crystals are formed when magma cools), intrusion of new bodies of magma, magma ascent, etc. These changes, coupled with changes in the duct system affect the flow of gases to the surface.

Some factors causing differences in the degassing of magma and restrictions on the flow of gases through ducts can be identified by routine measurement of emissions.


A rapid exsolution of gases or, sudden changes in flow conditions through the ducts can cause decompression of the magmatic system which can lead to explosive events of different magnitudes. Therefore, in order to diagnose the conditions prevailing within the volcano, it is important to monitor gas emissions.

remote gas measurement

SO2 emissions are the only ones that are measured routinely using a standardized methodology that uses a remote meter: the or COSPEC correlation spectrometer.
remote measurement of CO2 flux and H2O has successfully been achieved mainly because both are very abundant gases in the atmosphere and remote measurement is prevented by this and other factors. However, recently developed a methodology for measuring CO2 flux using an infrared gas analyzer.

remote measurement of gas emissions in Mexico

Mexico has used COSPEC since 1984 to measure the flow of SO2 Colima Volcano of Fire, and since February 1994 has been used to monitor the activity of the volcano Popocatepetl. Additionally, since 1997 have begun to measure SO2 emissions at other volcanoes such as Tacaná, Pico de Orizaba, the fallen, San Martín Tuxtla, Iztaccíhuatl, Nevado de Toluca, Jocotitlán, Ceboruco, San Juan, Sangangüey and others.

The SO2 flow measurement in the Mexican volcanoes is therefore an important need for each of the volcanoes and volcanically active areas of Mexico (Tres Virgenes, Ceboruco, San Juan, Tepetiltic, Sangangüey, Evermann, Bárcena, Nevado de Toluca, Jocotitlán, Iztaccíhuatl, La Malinche, Citlaltépetl, the fallen, San Martín, El Chichon, Tacaná, Primavera, among others).

flow measurement of SO2 in the active volcanoes of Mexico should be a routine practice and to characterize the level of emissions each of these volcanoes and build a reliable database for each volcano in particular and to all Mexican volcanoes in general. The knowledge of the background values \u200b\u200bof the volcanoes eruptive state can not permit identification of the increased activity of a particular volcano and document firmly the proximity of eruptive event.

Monitoring Popocatepetl volcano gas is carried out jointly by the Geophysical Institute and the National Center for Disaster Prevention. Dr. Hugo Delgado Granados's Geophysics Institute, who has set up remote monitoring of gases routinely in CENAPRED company staff as Lucio Cardenas Gonzalez and several people from the institute as Noé Piedad Sanchez, Beatriz Oropeza Villalobos, Isaac Abimelex Farraz, Patricia Julio Miranda, Esther Romero Teran, Carlos Linares López and Miguel Angel Alatorre Ibargüengoitia.

monitoring of soil gas emissions in

measurement gases in soils is a common practice in some volcanic areas. The measurement of soil CO2 flux in volcanic areas can meet the emission of this gas through areas deep to the surface. However, because this gas is abundant in nature, measurements must be made sensitive equipment to determine the changes in CO2 concentration above background levels due to organic activity.
Additionally, in volcanically active areas such as volcanic field Chichinautzin volcanic field and Michoacán-Guanajuato, where the possibility of origin of volcanoes, gas monitoring should be carried out through the characterization of soil CO2 emissions in the first instance and in case of reports of possible signs of volcanic activity, measurements of CO2 flux for comparing values \u200b\u200bwith the measured background and determine whether the observed corresponds to magmatic activity or other processes.

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From the Pleistocene period (one million years ago) released the first stage of the Popocatepetl volcano today, during his many eruptions have built a huge volcanic apparatus and currently is the fifth elevation of the Americas. An eruption that occurred approximately 23,000 years ago, destroyed the forests and formed large avalanche deposits reached 70 kilometers south of the present cone. This rash giant, was the beginning of a period of great explosion that deposited material called "xaltete" or "cacachuatillo", or according to the standard geological pyroclastic at distances up to 80 kilometers from the crater. Recent studies using radiocarbon 14, suggest at least two stages, including very active, one occurred 4.930 years ago and over 830 years ago. Another relatively minor eruptive stage, occurred in 1357, according to the chronicles report that prompted the name change, ie the old Xalliquehuac (sand flies) than Popocatépetl (hill that smokes).

activity of Popocatepetl began 730.000 years ago and was an eruptive process effusive type, ie lava flows, the activity of the magma body that has the Popocatepetl volcano is part of a process of this type, so that it poses no greater risk to society while maintain this behavior.
The observations made so far in the Popocatepetl lava indicate that the volcano has issued since late March 1997 as part of an evolutionary process over several centuries and is limited, so far, into the crater, is ie, not a fact apparent to the naked eye, so far does not represent a serious danger, except for those approaching the crater.

Volcanoes can have different types of rashes, but can be summarized in effusive or explosive. They differ by the material expelled and how quickly they do. In the former, the lava comes in small amounts, slowly, so their impact is slow, ie does not take people by surprise. By contrast, the second type of material erupted out in abundance and in a short time, giving it the character of explosive.
However, we must not forget that this stage can develop into an explosive and which are complex phenomena that are generated in a region of the magma chamber, inaccessible to direct measurement and only inferred by indirect measurements of compounds airborne and seismic signals.

studies carried out in this area are directed to know the likelihood that the latter phenomenon (the explosive phase) can occur, so that the population and the authorities take the necessary preventive measures.

Remember that Popocatepetl is an active volcano for many centuries and that surely will continue. In addition, the type of lava and activity seem to have the same characteristics as a small eruptive phase occurred between 1919 and 1927. For this reason, it is convenient to think of the dynamic behavior of the Earth, which suggests that any geological phenomenon can be described as cyclical, with quiet steps and other more active. Comparing

engineer chronicles Camacho, Dr. Fridland and painter Dr. Atl, the behavior of Popocatépetl is very similar to what happened from February 1919 until 1927, and presented from 21 December 1994 to today.
activity February 1919, a series of explosions inside the crater, which was occupied by a lake in 1906, the expeditions and observations made at the top of the volcano showed emission of lava inside the volcano, and violent explosions of 1927 that led to the formation of an inner crater with a diameter of approximately 800 meters and a depth of 90 meters.

Today, you can see the lava emitted in the southwest of the crater has reached the height where the holes were mentioned by Dr. Atl in studies that take place around the volcano in the early years twenty.

However, scientists say, the quantity of lava issued by the Popocatepetl, it would take some years to exceed the outer crater (over 300 meters high in the western sector) of the volcano. Also expected to be an active period very similar to the early twentieth century and there is some behavior of explosive, as it has been observed in the phases of December 2000 and January 2001.

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changes in seismic activity and emissions gas from the volcano may be patterns that indicate changes in the type of eruption, so frequent measurements of the increase or decrease of the gas is essential to understand the intensity of the process.
order to make appropriate management of common terms used in volcanology, and understand the phenomena that occur at a rate of Popocatepetl volcano, we consider it appropriate to include a brief glossary of useful definitions in these cases. Explosions

directed

is a column of hot volcanic material (rocks, gases and vapors) and can reach a height of 25 to 30 kilometers. It takes the form of fungus, shells (solid) casting generally have a size of 3 to 5 centimeters in diameter or larger. Tefra

is the set of volcanic material deposited in a region consisting mainly of ash. Well known to the output of gas, steam and rock fragments (where are greater than 64 mm are called bombs or blocks) that fall near the crater.

Lava Molten rock more than 800 º C that runs slowly down the slopes of the volcano. The viscosity of this material is determined by temperature and chemical composition.

mud flows
combination of water from rain, snow or ice or ablation of permanently frozen soil, volcanic ash and earth that move mainly in ravines or near the volcano slopes.

pyroclastic flows of hot ash that travel at high speed on one side the volcano, may have a temperature of 450 º C.

Seismicity seismic signals from volcanoes are commonly associated with the ascent of magma through a hydraulic system that ends at the base of the crater or some sector of the volcanic apparatus. The signals are recorded by sensors, which suggest some phenomena of the volcano, such as deformation or process fluids or gases that generate vibrations flowing through the system or signal characteristics when sections of rock fracture.

In the case of Popocatépetl, has managed to cut the volcano and locate the hypocenter, these Data shows that this type of event, from December 94 until now, are mainly located in the central area of \u200b\u200bthe volcano at a depth of 0-10 km below the top, with frequent signs, weak and accumulated in the duct output.

Seismology of volcanoes

Throughout the so-called Pacific Ring of Fire are distributed numerous active volcanoes that result from the interaction of different tectonic plates, this dynamic process is the generation of a large number of earthquakes, they often can reach catastrophic magnitude.
A clear example of this process is found in Japan, where 45 active volcanoes have records of eruptions in historical times, in the same way, the Japanese islands and adjacent regions have often been a series of destructive earthquakes of tectonic origin.

According to studies on different parts of the earth's crust, it has been understood that the volcanic earthquakes are not only limited in magnitude when compared to the tectonic nature, but also give rise to shallower depths.
also has determined that volcanic earthquakes have a different mechanism in the generation of elastic waves and that they develop differently the tectonic, on the other hand, has recently been shown that the relationship seismic magnitude-frequency (cycles per second) is also different for both types of events.

volcanic earthquakes Overview

For volcanic studies, it is desirable to classify earthquakes according to the location of the hypocenter (where the rupture starts), their relationship with different types of rashes and nature ground motion.
Earthquakes can be classified according to the hypocentral location and type of earthquake, in:

* Earthquakes type A. * Earthquakes type
B.
* explosion or earthquake Earthquake followed by explosive eruptions.
* Tremors volcanic or volcanic pulses. * AB
combinations. Earthquakes

type
These are produced under the volcanoes at depths greater than a mile, generally in the range of 1 to 20 km, rarely exceeding 5 on Richter scale. The developmental pattern of seismic activity and seismic frequency of such events is called "swarm" like the B-type earthquakes and explosion, it is very different developmental pattern of seismic activity tectonic origin. Seismic waves are similar type A to those generated by tectonic events superficial nature. Earthquakes

type B

These earthquakes originate mainly in the areas adjacent to active craters at extremely shallow depths, such as the crater of Mount Asama in Japan, Popocatepetl in Mexico and Halemaumau crater of Kilauea in Hawaii. The magnitudes of the earthquakes are small type B, the registration of S waves of the seismograms are almost indistinguishable and the movement of earthquake vibration consists mainly of periods in the range of 0.2 to 1 second. Since the frequency of an earthquake seismic type B usually increases before an explosive eruption, the is an indicator of domestic activity of volcanoes in Japan, Mount Asama, prediction was possible. Earthquakes

explosion

In explosive eruptions such as Mount Asama, a large number of blocks of lava and volcanic bombs are ejected ash and gases with strong detonations. One Vulcan type explosive eruption lasts several minutes, and the expulsion of large blocks of lava ends after 30 or 60 seconds into the explosion.

The maximum breadth or the magnitude of the explosion earthquake have a relationship with the intensity of the explosive eruption and is roughly proportional the kinetic energy of the eruption. Such events
contain longer wavelengths compared with those of type A and tectonic earthquakes, the earthquakes have not felt beyond the crater, the amplitude of movement exceeds the 1.000 micron at a distance of 4-5 km epicenter. The blasts or air vibrations (sound waves or shock waves in air) of explosive eruptions are recorded on seismograms.

gases and ash

In volcanology, changes in emissions of gases, ash and steam up patterns that may indicate changes in the type eruption or the magnitude of the events of Popocatepetl, making frequent measurements of the increase or decrease in these emissions are important for the activity of the process.

The amounts of sulfur dioxide emitted by the volcano are measured by a correlation spectrometer, which measures the absorption of solar energy by sulfur dioxide molecules, method of placing between the instrument and the light source The eruptive plume or gas, this type of measurement is usually land or air.

The output of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and water vapor (known as fumaroles) traveling in the direction wind and can become concentrated in low areas or plains.
According to chemical studies, the ashes emanating from the volcano, since December 1994, are low toxic level. Ash logs, are made periodically to determine the characteristics of the ash, its variation, density, thickness, volume calculations and chemical analysis.

volcanic ash particles of rock materials that were part of the body of the volcano are formed by the enormous pressure they are under rocks and crushed inside to the observed sizes ranging from a few microns to about 2 to 4 cm in diameter. These materials are ejected from the crater and the wind scatters in the direction you have at that time.

Remember that from the moment that there is volcanic vents it takes the name of "rash" as geologically defined as the output of any solid material inside the Earth's crust, and then explain some features.

Eiffel Tower Floral Arrangements

CLIMATE

You have already seen that does the same time every days, days and other days it rains the sun is shining, the wind sometimes and not others, some days very hot, others cold, some warm temperatures.


But this does not happen the same in all places on Earth. There are places where it rains a lot and other places where almost no rain. There are areas where almost always cold and others where almost always hot. Elsewhere, however, temperatures vary greatly from one station to another.
The weather in one place and is repeated every year along the way, is what we call CLIMATE.

For the climate of a place you have to consider the following elements: atmospheric pressure, winds, temperatures and precipitation.

A) The ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. Remember that
enveloping the Earth is a layer of air called the atmosphere?
This layer of air has a weight on Earth and the weight of air above a location on Earth is called atmospheric pressure. Ie: The atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of air above a given point on Earth.

Atmospheric pressure is measured with the barometer.

B) WIND is the air moving. Occurs when
heated air mass from one place on Earth.
As the hot air weighs less, rises and leaves a space that comes to occupy the air in the vicinity and so, so, the air is in motion. The wind, therefore, far colder areas to warmer.
There are winds that occur periodically, as the coastal breeze that blows throughout the day from the sea to land and at night from land to sea.

winds are measured by the anemometer.

c) TEMPERATURE.
Temperature is the degree of heat or cold in a certain area. When we say hot temperatures are high and vice versa cold weather.
Look at the picture below. The whole area is in Ecuador is the warmest and coldest is at the poles (the North Pole and South Pole), so, taking into account the temperature on Earth said that there the following areas Weather:

- A hot zone (the one in the middle, along the Ecuador).
- Two cold areas, one at each pole.
- Two temperate zones located between the poles and the area of \u200b\u200bEcuador. We live in one of temperate zones.

temperature varies with altitude and the proximity or remoteness of the sea. At higher altitudes colder, higher temperatures near the sea are smoother.

Temperatures are measured with a thermometer.

D) rains or PRECIPITATION.
With the heat the water in rivers, lakes and seas evaporates and rises into the atmosphere where clouds form. When the area of \u200b\u200bthe atmosphere where the clouds cools, the water falls back to earth, sometimes in rain, others in the form of snow and other in the form of hail.

When the clouds are close to the ground are called fog.
rain does not usually equal in all points on Earth.

- The closer you are the greater the rainfall Ecuador.
- also tends to rain more in areas that are near the sea in the interior of continents.
- In the high mountain water usually falls as snow.
Rainfall is measured with the gauge. You

to know how is the climate of a place you have to study 4 things: air pressure, winds, temperatures and precipitation.



Earth has many different climates.
we talk about hot weather, temperate and cold climates.

warm climates are primarily in the whole area of \u200b\u200bEcuador.
are usually distinguish 4 different types of climates, which are:

- Weather EQUATORIAL is characterized by the year nearly the same temperature, about 25 degrees, it's like we're always here in June, yet with a lot of rain the whole time and that is why in these areas are the largest rivers in the world and there are great forests.
- Weather TROPICAL RAIN also has abundant rainfall, although not as much as in Ecuador, and temperatures vary little throughout the year.
- Weather SECO TROPICAL. It rains a lot less, and rarely in summer. Temperatures tend to vary more throughout the year, being among 15 º and 25 º.
- Finally the weather DESERTICA where almost never rains. Here, during the day it very hot and very cold at night. Sometimes there are up to 40 ° difference between day and night. Here there are no rivers and vegetation is almost nonexistent.

climates that occur in temperate zones are:

- Weather MEDITERRANEAN. In these areas, the summers are dry, no rain and very hot, the winters are mild, ie not too cold and rainy, but not much.
- Weather OCEAN has the following characteristics: the rains are frequent throughout the year. There are often very warm in summer nor too cold in winter.
- Weather CONTINENTAL . Temperatures vary greatly between summer and winter. In the summer there are often very warm, but in winter there is often freezing temperatures or below freezing. Usually rains a lot in summer.
Cold climates are given in polar and high mountain areas. At the poles

temperatures are below freezing all year round.
In high mountain areas are often very cold, even in the summer tend to rise more. In these areas the temperatures are very low and rainfall is usually in the form of snow.

THE Climograma
Climograma is a graphic representation of data for the climate of an area. The information it contains are the monthly average temperatures and precipitation totals for each month (l / m 2).


FLORA, FAUNA AND CLIMATE
climates have an influence on the flora and fauna of Earth. In every type of weather usually given a certain plant species and also fit different animal species. Even the man organizes his life in different ways depending on the weather where you live.

CLIMATES OF SPAIN
In Spain, there are climates typical of the temperate zones. Moreover, being a large area of \u200b\u200bmountains, the summits of these is given the cold mountain climate. Moreover, in the Canary Islands, which lie closer to Ecuador, there is a known climate warmer climate canary.

recall some terms of the subject.

Temperature: is the degree of hot air due to radiation solar. Usually measured in degrees. When temperature data are given are usually given mediasde data a day, month or year.

admosfera pressure : is the weight exerted by the air above the surface. The average pressure sea \u200b\u200blevel is 1.013milibares, more of that pressure is considered high, less low.

isotherms : are imaginary lines used to represent the temperatures on maps.

latitude and altitude: coordinates are we used to be somewhere on the planet esacto. To use the Ecuador latitude, the tropics and polar circles, to use the altitude meridian.

Precipitation: water from the atmosphere, which falls on the earth's surface as rain, snow or hail.

Condensation: means that water vapor passes into the liquid, thus causing the clouds, until due to increased weight and size, they fall as rain.

Wind: Air in motion. The wind is usually directed from areas of higher pressure to those of menor.La wind speed is directly dependent on the pressure difference between them and other places.

Feeling Rollercoaster Drop

first of all have to do this:

Midnight Sun

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